In Search of the Next Sputnik - An Argument for Project Based Learning
In Search of the Next Sputnik: An Argument for Project Based Learning
From the days of the one room schoolhouse to the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act, alterations in the American classroom have historically followed shifts in the ideals and needs of the American society. The launch of Sputnik, Progressive era thinkers, and the industrialist ideals of Fredrick Winslow Taylor each ushered in pivotal changes that have defined the current educational fabric of this country.[1] However, considering the stagnation of nationwide test scores,[2] the dwindling of educational optimism,[3] and the gutting of many classroom budgets,[4] is it time for a widespread reform that allows schools to adapt to the realities of an information age? Influenced by the minds of John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, and a multitude of contemporary educators, project-based learning is a curriculum that students complete through the mastering of various projects over extensive periods of time.[5] Through an in-depth analysis of the ambitions, practice, and feasibility of project-based learning curriculums, it will be determined if a movement to an alternative system could stimulate the passion that once surrounded this nation’s education.
The early 20th century marks a pivotal transition in the educational history of the United States. With an economy experiencing rapid growth in industry, it was evident that American schools were failing to prepare their children for the realities of an industrialized society. Tasked with redesigning an antiquated system, the United States government brought in an industrialist by the name Fredrick Winslow Taylor to modernize the nation’s “school.” Inspired by optimal business strategies such as the assembly line, Taylor’s radical modifications intended for school systems to become painted portraits of efficiency. Sparking the bell system, the instruction of multiple subjects on a daily basis, and the row-by-row desk layout of contemporary classrooms, Taylor forever altered the definition of a public school. A pristine example of an educational response to a transforming society, Taylor’s effect on schooling is apparent in classrooms throughout the country.
Another highly influential era in education is found in the 1920’s progressive movement. Suffused with groundbreaking ideas that captured the American imagination, the movement quickly spilled over into the classroom. A mindset that championed the rights of the people, the progressivism era caused individuals to reexamine the proper methodology for education. Characterized by author Patricia Albjerg as the “Adjustment” era in education,[6] the era strove to sort each child into a path suited for the interests of each particular student. This was a stark juxtaposition to the overwhelming belief before the era, in which many felt all children had to be “assimilated” into a role that fit the expectations of society.1 John Dewey and other Progressive thinkers have remained highly influential since the 1920’s, and much of their work still plays a major role in the practice of education.
While a wide variety of educational philosophers had long been captivated by various educational theories and philosophies, public interest in Education was rather ambivalent until Sputnik was launched into the skies. Sent into orbit in 1957, Sputnik was the first manmade craft that was successfully propelled into the Earth’s atmosphere. 1 Crafted by the hands of the Soviets, Sputnik sent the American public into a mass hysteria in the months following the launch. [7] Paralyzed with the idea of a Soviet Union that was educationally superior to the United States, the American population demanded that Education become a national priority. 1 Taking the reigns of the educational system, the federal government launched the National Science Foundation and passed the 1958 Defense Authorization Act. 1 In a pre-Sputnik United States, federal intervention of this magnitude would have likely spurred a vehement response throughout the public. However, the frenzy of Sputnik ushered in a passion and interest in education that caused the American population to demand a higher standard of education.
The National Science Foundation and the 1958 Defense Authorization Act may have focused on the gifted students in the country, but the response of Sputnik established a precedent for the central focus on education at the federal level. This analysis is underlined by the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965, an act that finally placed an emphasis on education for every child residing in the United States. 1 The launch of Sputnik sent the American population into something close to madness, the passion that the public poured into Education beyond the launch deserves heavy recognition. While this passion has rarely been seen since this time, the united focus on educational progress after Sputnik forever altered the trajectory of American Schools, and demonstrated the power a united public can wield when it comes to the issue of education.
Now that there is an established understanding of the events and people who have inspired our nation’s present education system,1 it is crucial to illuminate the ideological developments from the past movements in education. Shedding light on the experimental educational movements of the contemporary era could present a future path for the country’s prevailing educational structure. It has been established that the industrial era made the current “school” a necessity, but the Information Age has replaced the definition of the workplace, and with it, the definition of an education. Can an industrial fitted model of schooling endure in today’s world? Is there even a model that can prepare students for a world with an ever changing future, rather than a world of the past? The answer may be found in the works from Dewey in the 1930’s and from the works of Jerome Bruner in the 1960’s.[8] This answer, known as project-based learning, was inspired by the constructivist approach and the ideas found in inquiry-based learning.1
To attain a refined comprehension of the roots to project-based learning, it is essential to explore the concepts that inspired the curriculum’s construction. Lev Vygotsky, a social constructivist whose philosophies often crossed into the realm of education, first voiced his belief that children learn through hands-on creation.[9] Vygotsky, similar to many other social constructivists, held the belief that children sculpted their purpose from functioning with their peers and their surrounding environments.1 Similar to many of the notions and practices in education, inquiry based learning can be traced back to the beliefs of Dewey, who felt students should create knowledge over simple knowledge acquirement.1 Contrasting inquiry-based learning with standard methodologies, inquiry based learning championed the belief that learning should be created in a practice similar to the scientific method. Instead of demanding that students complete worksheets pre-determined by the instructor, inquiry based learning proposed certain obstacles to each student, and the students would have to use the resources in their arsenal to solve these obstacles.1 Jerome Bruner later added to Dewey’s abstractions by proposing the view that all learning should be made through student created breakthroughs.[10]
An advancement from both constructivism and inquiry-based education, project-based learning can be defined as a curriculum that students complete by pursuing, creating and finishing projects over extensive periods of time.[11] The student pursuance of these projects could allow them to acquire the proper preparation for the realities of a changing future. This advancement could modernize today’s education system in the way that Fredrick Winslow Taylor’s industrial model revolutionized education in the previous century.
Now that the potential of project-based learning has been scrutinized, it is time to observe how the system has worked in practice. While there has not been a large-scale movement toward the idea, there are several small-scale examples of project-based frameworks that are worthy of examination. In the first of the selected studies over the effectiveness of project based learning, researchers set out to simply establish some kind of research on the validity of a “PBL” program, conceding in the introduction that barely any fieldwork had been conducted on project-based ideas.[1] In the study the researchers defined three different types subsections of which projects could be completed.[1] The first field allowed students to complete projects surrounding topics of which they already mastered, the authors note this project-based practice is prevalent in classrooms throughout the country, as the focus is for students to apply already acquired knowledge, rather than attain any additional expertise. [1] The second field of project-based learning is also found in conventional classrooms, generally posing “real-world” issues to students. [1] This type of project is given in conjunction with a traditional curriculum, and sets out with the hope that students harness their critical thinking abilities. The third and final section is an entire curriculum designed around the completion of projects, in one example of this approach, a university professor established the topics for the students, and the students decided which projects they would create to address these topics.[12] The final example highlights how project-based learning is a natural adaptation from the notions of Dewey and others progressives from the 1920’s. Project-based learning lifts such a heavy inspiration from the progressive era that Dewey himself could have rejected the system.[13] This is because, later in Dewey’s life, many progressive educators became so focused upon the student that Dewey himself felt the progressive approach to be impractical.1
While there is merit in the confines of Dewey’s progressive-era concerns, the results from the study remain promising for the advocates of project-based learning.[14] Though the authors admitted that there were problems with the data-collection aspect of the experiment, they proclaimed that project-based learning deserved more focus after the completion of their study. 3 The authors moved on to indicate that there is possibility that students learned less through project-based assignments, these project-based students tended to retain the knowledge of their assignments more reliably than their traditional counterparts.[15] The encouraging aspects of this study present a solid case for why an expansion project-based learning curriculums should be placed under heavy consideration. It is certain that a roughness may accompany the first experiments with the program, project-based learning presents an alternative response to today’s educational shortfalls.
While there is undeniable promise laced in the results of the first study, there are concerns that due to the system’s high demand and expectations, a project-based strategy is simply one that is not feasible. An ideal way to evaluate this negative outlook would be to investigate how students from all backgrounds have performed in project based environments. In an article composed by Jason Ravitz from the Buck Institute of Education, the author argues that project-based learning is beginning to galvanize the reformation of the nation’s high schools.[16] With the concerns that the country’s long established system is failing to prepare its students for today’s world, it is especially heartening that project-based learning has proven to be most effective with unmotivated, low achieving students. 1 As Sputnik proved over fifty years ago, a lot can be achieved when excitement surrounds a system of education. Early findings for PBL suggest that students from lower income homes are also obtaining higher achievement on their assignments.[17] These findings showcase the possibilities associated with project-based learning, indicating that a new movement in education may not be so far away. This system will allow for every student to utilize their critical thinking abilities to solve problems through the creation of projects with their peers. As the numbers are indicating, a project-based system could ironically ensure that no child is left behind. 2
The theory and the practice of project-based schools have received sound results thus far, but the issues that persist could obstruct the future “educational revolution.” Any proposed shift is likely to receive a vehement reaction from the present educational establishment.[18] Even more concerning, however, would be a nationwide drift to an unpractical system. Writer Christopher Lubienski provided cutting examples of how many experimental schools have historically receded to the “familiar,” undercutting the original goals of these schools.[19] This foreboding analysis also arose in a study of a project-based curriculum.[20] While the authors were eager to pursue further studies of a project based system, they pointed out that specific guidelines for project-based learning were sometimes inadequately crafted, implying that a curriculum was “project-based” in title alone. 2 Another problem unearthed in a separate study of project based ideals found that while improvement was measured with almost every demographic, non-English speakers seemed to face a minor level of exclusion.[21] This sample only contained a minute amount of non-English speakers, but this initial finding is still disturbing. When considering that the large demographic shifts seen throughout the United States, it is essential that school systems nationwide allow for the success of every single child.
Despite the risks attached to a project-based system, the time has arrived where our nation grasps a system that allows children to build their future success. While some experimental schools have devolved throughout history, it does not mean that an effort to find an educational solution should be abandoned. Fredrick Winslow Taylor’s Industrial minded changes have endured into the “information age.” This entails that students of the United States are learning to survive in a world that has long been left behind. Our students are no longer guaranteed the same job for thirty years, a gold watch, and the warmth of a cozy retirement. This bleak actuality emphasizes the necessity of American school systems to prepare children for a world that shifts by the moment. With the languishing trends of the United States’ educational system,[22] an exciting, fulfilling alternative has to be considered. In 1957, the launch of a single satellite spurred an educational fervency that forever redefined the American educational system.[23] The time has come to launch a system that once again challenges the nation’s students, and could potentially ignite an exhilaration that has not been witnessed since the launch of Sputnik.
Works Cited
1. Dewey, John. (1938, 1997). Experience and Education. New York, NY:
(Touchstone, 24-30.)
2. Elata, D., Frank, L., & Lavy, I. (2003). Implementing the project-based learning approach in an academic engineering course. (INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN, 1-2.)
3. Gardner, David P. "A nation at risk." Washington, D. C.: The National Commission on Excellence in Education, US Department of Education (1983).
4. Graham, Patricia Albjerg. (2005). Schooling America: How the Public Schools Meet The Nation’s Changing Needs. New York, NY: (Oxford University Press, 20-30.)
5. Harpalani, Vinay. "Maintaining Educational Adequacy in Times of Recession: Judicial Review of State Education Budget Cuts." NYUL Rev. 85 (2010): 258.
6. Helle, L., Tynjala, P., & Olkinoura, E. (2006). Project-based learning in post-secondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Higher Education, 51(2), 287-290. doi: 10.1007/s10734-004-6386-5
7. Lubienski , C. (2003). Selected innovation in education markets: Theory and evidence on the impact of competition and choice in charter schools . Am Educ Res J, 395(40), doi: 10.3102/00028312040002395
8. Manno, Bruno V., Chester E. Finn Jr, and Greg Vanourek. "Beyond the Schoolhouse Door: How Charter Schools Are Transforming US Public Education." Phi Delta Kappan 81, no. 10 (2000): 736-44.
9. McCluskey, Neal. "Falling Behind: How Can US Students Get a Top-rate Public Education?." The Tea (2012).
10.. Ravitz, Jason. "Project based learning as a catalyst in reforming high schools." In annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Retrieved on October, vol. 24, p. 2008: 1-2
[1] Graham, Patricia Albjerg. (2005). Schooling America: How the Public Schools Meet The Nation’s Changing Needs. New York, NY: (Oxford University Press, 20-30.)
[2] McCluskey, Neal. "Falling Behind: How Can US Students Get a Top-rate Public Education?." The Tea (2012).
[3] Gardner, David P. "A nation at risk." Washington, D. C.: The National Commission on Excellence in Education, US Department of Education (1983).
[4] Harpalani, Vinay. "Maintaining Educational Adequacy in Times of Recession: Judicial Review of State Education Budget Cuts." NYUL Rev. 85 (2010): 258.
[5] Elata, D., Frank, L., & Lavy, I. (2003). Implementing the project-based learning approach in an academic engineering course. (INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN, 1-2.)
[6] Graham, Patricia Albjerg. (2005). Schooling America: How the Public Schools Meet The Nation’s Changing Needs. New York, NY: (Oxford University Press, 20-30.)
[7] Graham, Patricia Albjerg. (2005). Schooling America: How the Public Schools Meet The Nation’s Changing Needs. New York, NY: (Oxford University Press, 20-30.)
1 Elata, D., Frank, L., & Lavy, I. (2003). Implementing the project-based learning approach in an academic engineering course. (INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN, 275.)
2 Hodson, Derek, and Julie Hodson. "From constructivism to social constructivism: a Vygotskian perspective on teaching and learning science."School Science Review 79, no. 289 (1998): 33-41
[10] Helle, L., Tynjala, P., & Olkinoura, E. (2006). Project-based learning in post-secondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Higher Education, 51(2), 287-290. doi: 10.1007/s10734-004-6386-5
[11] Ravitz, Jason. "Project based learning as a catalyst in reforming high schools." In annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Retrieved on October, vol. 24, p. 2008: 1-2
[12] Helle, L., Tynjala, P., & Olkinoura, E. (2006). Project-based learning in post-secondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Higher Education, 51(2), 287-290. doi: 10.1007/s10734-004-6386-5
[13] Dewey, John. (1938, 1997). Experience and Education. New York, NY:
(Touchstone, 24-30.)
[14] Helle, L., Tynjala, P., & Olkinoura, E. (2006). Project-based learning in post-secondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Higher Education, 51(2), 310-314. doi: 10.1007/s10734-004-6386-5
[15] Helle, L., Tynjala, P., & Olkinoura, E. (2006). Project-based learning in post-secondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Higher Education, 51(2), 304-308. doi: 10.1007/s10734-004-6386-5
[16] Ravitz, Jason. "Project based learning as a catalyst in reforming high schools." In annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Retrieved on October, vol. 24, p. 2008: 1-2
[17] Ravitz, Jason. "Project based learning as a catalyst in reforming high schools." In annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Retrieved on October, vol. 24, p. 2008: 10-11
[18] Manno, Bruno V., Chester E. Finn Jr, and Greg Vanourek. "Beyond the Schoolhouse Door: How Charter Schools Are Transforming US Public Education." Phi Delta Kappan 81, no. 10 (2000): 736-44.
[19] Lubienski , C. (2003). Selected innovation in education markets: Theory and evidence on the impact of competition and choice in charter schools . Am Educ Res J, 395(40), doi: 10.3102/00028312040002395
[20] Helle, L., Tynjala, P., & Olkinoura, E. (2006). Project-based learning in post-secondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Higher Education, 51(2), 287-290. doi: 10.1007/s10734-004-6386-5
[21] Ravitz, Jason. "Project based learning as a catalyst in reforming high schools." In annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Retrieved on October, vol. 24, p. 2008: 10-11
[22] Ravitz, Jason. "Project based learning as a catalyst in reforming high schools." In annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Retrieved on October, vol. 24, p. 2008: 10-11
[23] Graham, Patricia Albjerg. (2005). Schooling America: How the Public Schools Meet The Nation’s Changing Needs. New York, NY: (Oxford University Press, 20-30.)